X. 1. The difference between the sexes is a special
gift of the Creator to human beings He created. «So God created man in
his own image, in the image of God created he man; male and female
created he them» (Gen. 1:27). As equal bearers of the divine image and
human dignity, man and woman are created to be completely united in
love: «Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall
cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh» (Gen. 2:24).
Fulfilling the Lord’s original will for the creation, the marital union
becomes a means of continuing and multiplying the human race: «And God
blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and
replenish the earth, and subdue it» (Gen. 1:28). The sexual distinctions
are not limited to the difference in constitution. Man and woman are
two different modes of existence in one humanity. They need
communication and complementation. However, in the fallen world,
relationships between the sexes can be perverted, ceasing to be an
expression of God-given love and degenerating into the sinful passion of
the fallen man for his ego.
While appreciating deeply the feat of voluntary virginal
celibacy assumed for the sake of Christ and the Gospel and recognising
the special role of monasticism in the past and the present, the Church
has never disparaged marriage, but denounced those who abased
matrimonial relations out of wrongly understood purity.
St. Paul, who personally chose celibacy and called people to emulate
him in it (1 Cor. 7:8), still denounces those who speak «lies in
hypocrisy; having their conscience seared with a hot iron; forbidding to
marry» (1 Tim. 4:2-3). Apostolic Canon 51 reads: «If… any one… abstains
from marriage… not by way of religious restraint, but as abhorring
them, forgetting that God made all things very good, and that he made
man male and female, and blaspheming the work of creation, let him be
corrected, or else be deposed, and cast out of the Church». This rule is
developed in Canons 1, 9 and 10 of the Council of Gangra: «If any one
shall condemn marriage, or abominate and condemn a woman who is a
believer and devout, and sleeps with her own husband, as though she
could not enter the Kingdom [of heaven], let him be anathema. If any one
shall remain virgin, or observe continence, abstaining from marriage
because he abhors it, and not on account of the beauty and holiness of
virginity itself, let him be anathema. If any one of those who are
living a virgin life for the Lord’s sake shall treat arrogantly the
married, let him be anathema». Referring to these Canons, the Holy Synod
of the Russian Orthodox Church in its decision of December 28, 1998,
pointed to «the inadmissibility of the negative or arrogant attitude to
marriage».
X. 2. According to the Roman law, which was put in
the basis of the civil codes in most of the contemporary states,
marriage is an agreement between two parties free in their choice. The
Church has accepted this definition, interpreting it on the basis of
testimonies found in Holy Scriptures.
The Roman jurist Modestinus gave this definition to marriage:
«Marriage is the union of man and woman, communion of life,
participation together in the divine and human law». Almost unchanged,
this definition was included in the canonical books of the Orthodox
Church, such as the Nomocanon by Patriarch Photius (9th century), the Syntagma by Matthew Vlastar (14th century) and the Procheron by Basil the Macedonian (9th century) included in the Slavonic Kormchaya Kniga. The early Christian fathers and teachers of the Church also leaned on the Roman idea of marriage. Thus, Athenagoras in his Apology
addressed to Emperor Marcus Aurelius (2nd century) writes: «Every one
of us considers the woman he married by law to be his wife». The Apostolic Constitutions, a monument of the 4th century, exhorts Christians to «to contract marriage by law».
Christianity replenished the heathen and Old Testament ideas of
marriage with the sublime union of Christ and the Church: «Wives, submit
yourselves unto your own husbands, as unto the Lord. For the husband is
the head of the wife, even as Christ is the head of the Church: and he
is the saviour of the body. Therefore, as the church is subject unto
Christ, so let the wives be to their husbands in every thing. Husbands,
love your wives, even as Christ also loved the Church, and gave himself
for it; that he might sanctify and cleanse it with the washing of water
by the word, that he might present it to himself a glorious church, not
having spot, or wrinkle, or any such thing: but that it should be holy
and without blemish. So ought men to love their wives as their own
bodies. He that loveth his wife loveth himself. For no man ever yet
hated his own flesh; but nourisheth and cherisheth it, even as the Lord
the church: for we are members of his body, of his flesh, and of his
bones. For this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall
be joined unto his wife, and they two shall be one flesh. This is a
great mystery: but I speak concerning Christ and the church.
Nevertheless let every one of you in particular so love his wife even as
himself; and the wife see that she reverence her husband» (Eph.
5:22-33).
For Christians, marriage has become not simply a legal contract, a
means of reproduction and satisfaction of temporal natural needs, but,
according to St. John Chrysostom, «a mystery of love», an eternal union
of spouses in Christ. From the beginning, Christians sealed marriage
through the Church’s blessing and sharing in the Eucharist, which was
the oldest form of the administration of the Sacrament of Matrimony.
«Those who marry should ally themselves with the consent of a bishop,
so that the marriage might be in the Lord, not for lust», wrote the
Protomartyr Ignatius the God-Bearer. According to Tertullian, marriage
«sealed by the Church and confirmed by sacrifice (the Eucharist) is
stamped by blessing and recorded by the angels in heaven». St. John
Chrysostom said, «Priests should be urged to confirm spouses in common
life by prayers and blessings, so that… spouses may lead their life in
joy, united by God’s help». St. Ambrose of Milan pointed out that
«marriage should be sanctified by the priestly intercession and
blessing».
In the period of the Christianisation of the Roman Empire, marriage
continued to be validated by civil registration. Consecrating
matrimonial unions by prayer and blessing, the Church still recognised a
common-law marriage as valid in cases where the church marriage was
impossible and did not subject the spouses thus married to canonical
prohibitions. Today the Russian Orthodox Church upholds the same
practice. In doing so, she cannot approve and bless the matrimonial
unions which, while being concluded in accordance with the existing law,
violate the canonical prescriptions, such as a fourth and subsequent
marriages, marriages in the inadmissible degrees of blood or spiritual
affinity.
According to the 74th Novella of Justinian (538), a lawful marriage could be sealed by either an ecdicus
(a church notary) or a priest. This rule was included in the eclogue of
Emperor Leo III and his son Constantine (740), and in the legislation
of Basil I (879). Mutual agreement between man and woman, confirmed
before witnesses, was an important condition of marriage. The Church did
not protest against this practice. Only in 893, by Novella 89 of
Emperor Leo VI, free citizens were obliged to marry in church. In 1095,
Emperor Alexis Comninus extended this rule to slaves. The introduction
of obligatory church marriage (9th-11th centuries) meant that the
authority transferred the entire legal regulation of matrimonial
relations to the jurisdiction of the Church. However, the universal
introduction of this practice should not be seen as the institution of
the Sacrament of Matrimony, which had existed in the Church from times
immemorial.
The order established in Byzantium was also assimilated in Russia
with regard to the people of Orthodox confession. By the Decree on the
Separation of the Church from the State (1918), church marriage was
rendered invalid; formally the faithful were given the right to accept a
church blessing after registering a marriage with state. In fact,
throughout the long period of the persecution of religion by the state,
the celebration of marriage in church remained difficult and dangerous.
On December 28, 1998, the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church
regretted to state that «some spiritual fathers tend to declar
common-law marriage invalid or demand that spouses, who have lived
together for many years but were not married in church for this or that
reason, should divorce… Some spiritual fathers do not allow persons who
live in «unwed» marriage to communicate, identifying such a marriage
with fornication». The decision adopted by the Synod points out that
«while insisting on the necessity of church marriage, the Synod reminds
pastors that the Orthodox Church also respects common-law marriage».
The common faith of spouses who are members of the body of
Christ is an essential condition for truly Christian and church
marriage. It is only the family that has one faith that can
become «the church in the house» (Rom. 16:5; Phil. 1:2), in which
husband and wife together with their children grow in spiritual
perfection and knowledge of God. The lack of like-mindedness presents a
serious threat to the integrity of a matrimonial union. That is why the
Church considers it her duty to urge the faithful to marry «only in the
Lord» (1 Cor. 7:39), that to marry only those who share their Christian
convictions.
The above-mentioned resolution of the Holy Synod also speaks of the
Church’s respect for «the marriage in which only one of the parties
belongs to the Orthodox faith. For, according to St. Paul, «the
unbelieving husband is sanctified by the wife, and the unbelieving wife
is sanctified by the husband» (1 Cor. 7:14)». The fathers of the Council
in Trullo also referred to this scriptural text when recognised as
valid the union between those who «up to this time being unbelievers and
not yet numbered in the flock of the orthodox have contracted lawful
marriage», if later one of the spouses embraced the faith. In the same
canon, however, just as in other canonical decrees (IV Ecum. Council 14;
Laodic. 10, 31), and works of early Christian authors and church
fathers (Tertullian, St. Cyprian of Carthage, St. Theodoret and St.
Augustine), it is prohibited to contract marriages with followers of
other religious traditions.
In accordance with ancient canonical prescriptions, today,
too, the Church does not sanctifies marriages contracted between the
Orthodox and non-Christians, while recognising them as lawful and not
regarding those who live in such a marriage as living in sinful
co-habitation. Proceeding from considerations of pastoral oikonomia, the
Russian Orthodox Church has deemed it possible, both in the past and
present, to celebrate marriages between Orthodox Christians and
Catholics, members of the Oriental Churches and Protestants who confess
the faith in the Triune God, provided the marriage is blessed in the
Orthodox Church and the children are raised in the Orthodox faith. Most
of the Orthodox Churches have followed the same practice for the past
centuries.
By its decree of June 23, 1721, the Sacred Synod permitted to
celebrate marriages on the above-mentioned conditions between Swedish
captives held in Siberia and Orthodox brides. On August 18 of the same
year, this Synodal decision was give a thorough biblical and theological
substantiation in a special Synodal Letter. This Letter was also used
as reference subsequently when the Holy Synod had to make a decision on
mixed marriages in provinces annexed from Poland and Finland (the Holy
Synod Decrees of 1803 and 1811). In these provinces, however, it was
permitted to choose freely the confessional affiliation of children
(this practice was applied for some time in the Baltic provinces as
well). Finally, the rules concerning mixed marriages for the whole
Russian Empire were sealed in the Statute of the Religious Consistories
(1883). Many dynastic marriages were mixed, and for their celebration it
was not required of the non-Orthodox party to embrace Orthodoxy (with
the exception of the marriage of an heir to the Russian throne). Thus,
the Protomartyr Grand Duchess Elizabeth, a member of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church, was married to Prince Sergiy Alexandrovich and only
later embraced Orthodox by her own will.
X. 3. The Church insists that spouses should remain faithful for life and that Orthodox marriage is indissoluble on
the basis of the words of the Lord Jesus Christ: «What God hath joined
together, let not man put asunder… Whosoever shall put away his wife,
except it for fornication, and shall marry another, commitieth adultery»
(Mt. 19:6, 9). Divorce is denounced by the Church as sin, for it brings
great spiritual suffering to spouses (at least to one of them),
especially to children. Today’s situation in which a considerable number
of marriages are dissolved, especially among young people, causes an
extreme concern. This situation has become a real tragedy both for the
individual and the people.
The Lord pointed to adultery as the only permissible ground for
divorce, for it defiles the sanctity of marriage and breaks the bond of
matrimonial faithfulness. In cases where spouses suffer from all kinds
of conflict, the Church sees it as her pastoral task to use all the
means appropriate for her, (such as exhortation, prayer, participation
in the Sacraments) to safeguard the integrity of a marriage and to
prevent divorce. The clergy are also called to talk to those who wish to
marry, explaining to them the importance of the intended step.
Unfortunately, sometimes spouses prove unable to preserve the gift of
grace they received in the Sacrament of Matrimony and to keep the unity
of the family because of their sinful imperfection. In her desire to
save the sinners, the Church gives them an opportunity to reform and is
ready to re-admit them to the Sacraments after they make repentance.
The Byzantine laws, which were established by Christian emperors and
met with no objection of the Church, admitted of various grounds for
divorce. In the Russian Empire, the dissolution of lawful marriages was
effected in the ecclesiastical court.
In 1918, in its Decision on the Grounds for the Dissolution
of the Marriage Sanctified by the Church, the Local Council of the
Russian Orthodox Church, recognised as valid, besides adultery and a new
marriage of one of the party, such grounds as a spouse’s falling away
from Orthodoxy, perversion, impotence which had set in before marriage
or was self-inflicted, contraction of leper or syphilis, prolonged
disappearance, conviction with disfranchisement, encroachment on the
life or health of the spouse, love affair with a daughter in law,
profiting from marriage, profiting by the spouse’s indecencies,
incurable mental disease and malevolent abandonment of the spouse. At
present, added to this list of the grounds for divorce are chronic
alcoholism or drug-addiction and abortion without the husband’s consent.
For the spiritual education of those contracting a marriage and
consolidation of marital bonds, the clergy are urged before celebrating a
Marriage to explain in detail to the bridegroom and bride that a
marital union concluded in church is indissoluble. They should emphasise
that divorce as the last resort can be sought only if spouses committed
actions defined by the Church as causes for divorce. Consent to the
dissolution of a marriage cannot be given to satisfy a whim or to
«confirm» a common-law divorce. However, if a divorce is an accomplished
fact, especially when spouses live separately, the restoration of the
family is considered impossible and a church divorce may be given if the
pastor deigns to concede the request. The Church does not at
all approve of a second marriage. Nevertheless, according to the canon
law, after a legitimate church divorce, a second marriage is allowed to
the innocent spouse. Those whose first marriage was dissolved through
their own fault a second marriage is allowed only after repentance and
penance imposed in accordance with the canons. According to the
rules of St. Basil the Great, in exceptional cases where a third
marriage is allowed, the duration of the penance shall be prolonged.
In its Decision of December 28, 1998, the Holy Synod of the Russian
Orthodox Church denounced the actions of those spiritual fathers who
«prohibit their spiritual children from contracting a second marriage on
the grounds that second marriage is allegedly denounced by the Church
and who prohibit married couples from divorce if their family life
becomes impossible for this or that reason». At the same time, the Holy
Synod resolved that «pastors should be reminded that in her attitude to
the second marriage the Orthodox Church is guided by the words of St.
Paul: ‘Art thou bound unto a wife? Seek not to be loosed. Art thou
loosed from a wife? Seek not a wife. But and if thou marry, thou hast
not sinned; and if a virgin marry, she hath not sinned… the wife is
bound by the law as long as her husband liveth; but if her husband be
dead, she is at liberty to be married to whom she will; only in the
Lord’ (1 Cor. 7:27-28, 39)».
X. 6. A special inner closeness between the family
and the Church is evident already from the fact that in Holy Scriptures
Christ describes Himself as a bridegroom (Mt. 9:15; 25:1-13; Lk.
12:35-36), while the Church is presented as His wife and bride (Eph.
5:24; Rev. 21:9). Similarly, St. Clement of Alexandria describes the
family as a church and a house of God, while St. John Chrysostom calls
the family «a lesser church». «I shall also say», writes the holy
father, «that marriage is a mysterious transformation of the Church». A
man and a woman who love each other, united in marriage and aspiring for
Christ form a domestic church. Children become fruits of their love and
communion, and their birth and upbringing belong, according to the
Orthodox teaching, to one of the most important goals of marriage.
«Lo, children are an heritage of the Lord: and the fruit of the womb
is his reward», exclaims the Psalmist (Ps. 127:3). St. Paul taught the
saving nature of childbirth (1 Tim. 2:13). He also urged fathers:
«Provoke not your children to wrath: but bring them up in the nurture
and admonition of the Lord» (Eph. 6:4). «Children are not an occasional
acquirement; we are responsible for their salvation… The negligence of
children is the greatest of all sins as it leads to extreme impiety…
There is no excuse for us if our children are corrupt», St. John
Chrysostom exhorts. St. Ephrem the Syrian teaches: «Blessed are those
who bring up their children in piety». «A true father is not the one who
has begotten children but the one who has brought them up and taught
them well», writes St. Tikhon Zadonsky. «Parents are responsible first
of all for the upbringing of their children and cannot ascribe blame for
their bad education to anyone but themselves», preached the Holy Martyr
Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev. «Honour thy father and thy mother: that
thy days may be long upon the land», reads the fifth commandment (Ex.
20:12). In the Old Testament, disrespect for parents is regarded as the
greatest transgression (Ex. 21:15, 17; Prov. 20:20; 30:17). The New
Testament teaches children to obey their parents with love: «Children,
obey your parents in all things: for this is well pleasing unto the
Lord» (Col. 3:20).
The family as a domestic church is a single organism whose members
live and build their relations on the basis of the law of love. The
experience of family relations teaches a person to overcome sinful
egoism and lays the foundations for his sense of civil duty. It is in
the family as a school of devotion that the right attitude to one’s
neighbours and therefore to one’s people and society as a whole is
formed. The living continuity of generations, beginning in family, is
continued in the love of the forefathers and fatherland, in the feeling
of participation in history. This is why it is so dangerous to distort
the traditional parents-child relationship, which, unfortunately, have
been in many ways endangered by the contemporary way of life. The
diminished social significance of motherhood and fatherhood compared to
the progress made by men and women in the professional field leads to
the treatment of children as an unnecessary burden, contributing also to
the development of alienation and antagonism between generations. The
role of family in the formation of the personality is exceptional; no
other social institution can replace it. The erosion of family relations
inevitably entails the deformation of the normal development of
children and leaves a long, and to a certain extent indelible trace in
them for life.
Children who have parents who have abandoned them have become a
lamentable disaster of society today. Thousands of abandoned children
who fill orphanages and sometimes find themselves in streets point to a
profound illness of society. Giving these children spiritual and
material help and seeing to it that they are involved in religious and
social life, the Church at the same time considers it one of her most
important duties to raise parents’ awareness of their calling, which
would exclude the tragedy of the abandoned child.
X. 5. In the pre-Christian world, it was common to
think of woman as inferior to man. The Church of Christ has revealed the
dignity and calling of woman in all its fullness, giving them solid
religious grounds the ultimate of which is the veneration of the Most
Holy Mother of God. According to Orthodox teaching, most favoured Mary,
who was blessed among women (Lk. 1:21), showed the highest degree of
moral purity, spiritual perfection and holiness to which humanity could
raise and which surpasses the virtue of the angelic ranks. In Her face,
motherhood is sanctified and the significance of the female principle is
asserted. The mystery of the Incarnation is accomplished with the
participation of the Mother of God, thus making Her a participant in the
cause of the human salvation and re-birth. The Church deeply venerates
the myrrh-bearing women and numerous communities of Christian women
glorified by the feats of martyrdom, confession and righteousness. From
the very beginning of the church community, woman has taken an active
part in its building, liturgical life, mission, preaching, education and
charity.
While appreciating the social role of women and welcoming
their political, cultural and social equality with men, the Church
opposes the tendency to diminish the role of woman as wife and mother.
The fundamental equality of the sexes does not annihilate the natural
distinction between them, nor does it imply the identity of their
callings in family and society. In particular, the Church
cannot misconstrue the words of St. Paul about the special
responsibility of husband who is called to be «the head of the wife» who
loves her as Christ loves His Church, and about the calling of the wife
to obey the husband as the Church obeys Christ (Eph. 5:22-23; Col.
3:18). These words are not of course about the despotism of husband or
the slavery of wife, but about supremacy in responsibility, care and
love. It should not be forgotten either that all Christians are called
to «submit themselves to one another in the fear of God» (Eph. 5:21).
Therefore, «neither is the man without the woman, neither the woman
without the man, in the Lord. For as the woman is of the man, even so is
the man also by the woman; but all things of God» (1 Cor. 11:11-12).
Representatives of some social movements tend to diminish and
sometimes even deny the importance of marriage and the institution of
family, focusing primarily on the socially significant activities of
women including those incompatible or little compatible with the woman’s
nature (such as hard manual labour). Demands are often heard that men
and women should be made artificially equal in every field of human
activity. The Church, however, sees the calling of woman not in the mere
emulation of man or competition with him, but in the development of all
her God-given abilities, including those peculiar only to her nature.
Without focusing on the distribution of social functions alone,
Christian anthropology appropriates to woman a higher place than she is
given in the contemporary irreligious beliefs. The desire to
remove or minimise the natural differences in social field is alien to
the church mind. Sexual, just as social and ethnic, distinctions do not
obstruct the way to salvation given by Christ to all people. «There
is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is
neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus» (Gal.
3:28). This soteriological assertion, however, does not imply an attempt
to water down the human diversity artificially, nor should it be
mechanically extended to any social relations.
X. 6. The virtue of chastity preached by the Church is the basis of the inner unity of the human personality,
which should always be in the state of harmony between its mental and
bodily powers. Fornication inevitably ruins the harmony and integrity of
one’s life, damaging heavily one’s spiritual health. Libertinism dulls
the spiritual vision and hardens the heart, making it incapable of true
love. The happiness of full-blooded family life becomes
unattainable for the fornicator. Sins against chastity also lead to
negative social consequences. In the situation of a spiritual
crisis of the human society, the mass media and the products of the
so-called mass culture sometimes become instruments of moral corruption
by praising sexual laxity, all kinds of sexual perversion and other
sinful passions. Pornography, which is the exploitation of the
sexual drive for commercial, political or ideological purposes,
contributes to the suppression of the spiritual and moral principles,
thus reducing man to an animal motivated by instinct alone.
The propaganda of vice is especially harmful for the still infirm souls of children and youth. Through
books, films and other video products, as well as the mass media and
some educational curricula, teenagers are often taught an idea of sexual
relations extremely humiliating for the human dignity, since it gives
no room to such notions as chastity, marital faithfulness and selfless
love. Intimate relations between man and woman are not only exposed for
show, offending the natural feeling of prudence, but also presented as
an act of purely corporal gratification without any association with
inner communion or any moral obligations. The Church urges the faithful
to struggle, in co-operation with all morally healthy forces, against
the propagation of this diabolical temptation, which, by destroying the
family, undermines the foundations of society.
«Whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath commiteth
adultery with her already in his heart», the Lord Jesus Christ says in
his Sermon on the Mount (Mt. 5:28). «When lust hath conceived, it
bringeth forth sin: and sin, when it is finished, bringeth forth death»
St. James warns (Jam. 1:15). «Neither fornicators… shall inherit the
kingdom of God» (1 Cor. 9-10). These words can be fully applied to the
consumers and even more so the manufacturers of pornographic production.
The latter can also fall under these words of Christ: «Whoso shall
offend one of these little ones which believe in me, it were better for
him, that a millstone were hanged about his neck, and that he were
drowned in the depth of the sea… Woe to that man by whom the offence
cometh» (Mt. 18:6-7). «Fornication is poison mortifying the soul…
Whoever fornicates rejects Christ», St. Tikhon Zadonsky wrote. St.
Dimitry of Rostov wrote that «the body of each Christian is not his, but
Christ’s, according to the words of Scripture: ‘Ye are the body of
Christ, and members in particular’ (1 Cor. 12-27). And it does not
behove you to defile the body of Christ by carnal and voluptuous
actions, except lawful conjugality. For you are a house of Christ,
according to the word of the Apostle: ‘for the temple of God is holy,
which temple ye are’ (1 Cor. 3:17)». The Early Church, in the writings
of her fathers and doctors, such as Clement of Alexandria, St. Gregory
of Nyssa and St. John Chrysostom, invariably renounced obscene drama
scenes and presentations. Under the threat of excommunication, the 100th
Canon of the Council in Trullo prohibits making «representations
corrupting the mind and provoking inflammations of impure pleasures».
The human body is a wondrous creation of God and is ordained to become the temple of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 6:19-20). Condemning
pornography and fornication, the Church does not at all call to abhor
the body or sexual intimacy as such. For the physical relations between
man and woman are blessed by God in marriage in which they express
chaste love, complete communion and the «harmony of the minds and
bodies» of the spouses, for which the Church prays in the celebration of
wedding. What actually should be denounced is the tendency to turn
these chaste and appropriate relations as God has designed them and the
human body itself into an object of humiliating exploitation and trade
to derive egoistic, impersonal, loveless and perverted pleasure. For this reason, the
Church invariably denounces prostitution and the preaching of the
so-called free love in which physical intimacy is completely divorced
from personal and spiritual communion, selflessness and all-round
responsibility for each other, which are possible only in the lifetime
conjugal faithfulness.
Aware of the need for the school, along with the family, to give
children and adolescents the knowledge of sexuality and the physical
human nature, the Church cannot support those programs of «sexual
education» in which premarital intercourse and, all the more so, various
perversions are recognised as the norm. It is absolutely unacceptable
to impose such programs upon schoolchildren. School is called to oppose
vice which erodes the integrity of the personality, to educate children
for chastity and prepare them for creating solid families based on
faithfulness and purity.
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